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The Nature of Theory

  • 1 toward a theory of cellularity - speculations on the nature of the living cell

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > toward a theory of cellularity - speculations on the nature of the living cell

  • 2 Theory

       Neurath has likened science to a boat which, if we are to rebuild it, we must rebuild plank by plank while staying afloat in it. The philosopher and the scientist are in the same boat....
       Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distanced objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race. In assimilating this cultural fare we are little more aware of a distinction between report and invention, substance and style, cues and conceptualization, than we are of a distinction between the proteins and the carbohydrates of our material intake. Retrospectively we may distinguish the components of theory-building, as we distinguish the proteins and carbohydrates while subsisting on them. (Quine, 1960, pp. 4-6)
       Theories are usually introduced when previous study of a class of phenomena has revealed a system of uniformities.... Theories then seek to explain those regularities and, generally, to afford a deeper and more accurate understanding of the phenomena in question. To this end, a theory construes those phenomena as manifestations of entities and processes that lie behind or beneath them, as it were. (Hempel, 1966, p. 70)
       A strong approach [to construct validation] looks on construct validation as tough-minded testing of specific hypotheses:
       heoretical concepts are defined conceptually or implicitly by their role in a network of nomological or statistical "laws." The meaning is partially given by the theoretical network, however tentative and as yet impoverished that network may be. Crudely put, you know what you mean by an entity to the extent that statements about it in the theoretical language are linked to statements in the observational language. These statements are about where it's found, what it does, what it's made of. Only a few of those properties are directly tied to observables [p. 136]. In [an early] theory sketch, based upon some experience and data, everything said is conjectural. We have tentative notions about some indicators of the construct with unknown validities [p. 144]. [When we check up empirically on predictions from the model] we are testing the crude theory sketch, we are tightening the network psychometrically, and we are validating the indicators. All of these are done simultaneously [p. 149]. [Extracted with elisions and some paraphrase from Meehl & Golden, 1982.] (Cronbach, 1990, p. 183)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Theory

  • 3 flow theory

    Gen Mgt
    a theory of the way in which people become engaged with, or disengaged from, change. Flow theory suggests that people harmonize in change situations, and open, honest, trusting relationships emerge. The theory recognizes the unpredictability and rigidity of human nature when faced with change.

    The ultimate business dictionary > flow theory

  • 4 лежать в основе

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    The basis for the antibacterial effects of dyes is their ability to...

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    Behind the Mullard invention is the notion that...

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    Central to the theory is...

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    These equations form the basis (or foundation) of the theory of...

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    It is this form that provides the basis (or is fundamental) for a wide variety of TV antennas.

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    Boolean algebra underlies the theory of relations.

    •

    Microcomputers are at the heart of "transaction" telephones for checking customers' credit.

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    The general rule that the forces between two particles result from an exchange of other particles is basic to much of our present understanding of elementary-particle interactions.

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    The Periodic Table provides the framework for the whole study of inorganic chemistry.

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    Thermochemistry is basic to the study of chemical bonding.

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    An understanding of dye laser operation is a building block for understanding the principles of other tunable laser systems.

    •

    The chapter describes the fundamental physics that gives rise to the behaviour of the single junction and the transistor as circuit elements.

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    The nature of energy lies at the heart of the mystery of our existence.

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    This reaction is the basis for the cyanamide process for...

    * * *
    Лежать в основе -- to be at the heart of, to lie at the heart of; to be at the root of; to be at the basis of, to form the basis of, to form the basis for; to form the foundation for; to underlie
     Inference is al the heart of both language understanding and language generation.
     An accurate determination of primary flowrate lies at the heart of any turbine acceptance test.
     It is this particular approach that forms the basis of the dynamic testing technique described in this paper.
     Suppose that a single predicate underlies part of the meaning of each of the following sentences. (... лежит в основе части значения...)

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > лежать в основе

  • 5 лежать в основе

    •

    The basis for the antibacterial effects of dyes is their ability to...

    •

    Behind the Mullard invention is the notion that...

    •

    Central to the theory is...

    •

    These equations form the basis (or foundation) of the theory of...

    •

    It is this form that provides the basis (or is fundamental) for a wide variety of TV antennas.

    •

    Boolean algebra underlies the theory of relations.

    •

    Microcomputers are at the heart of "transaction" telephones for checking customers' credit.

    •

    The general rule that the forces between two particles result from an exchange of other particles is basic to much of our present understanding of elementary-particle interactions.

    •

    The Periodic Table provides the framework for the whole study of inorganic chemistry.

    •

    Thermochemistry is basic to the study of chemical bonding.

    •

    An understanding of dye laser operation is a building block for understanding the principles of other tunable laser systems.

    •

    The chapter describes the fundamental physics that gives rise to the behaviour of the single junction and the transistor as circuit elements.

    •

    The nature of energy lies at the heart of the mystery of our existence.

    •

    This reaction is the basis for the cyanamide process for...

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > лежать в основе

  • 6 Pragmatism

        Pragmatism According to William James, pragmatism is a method of solving various types of problems, such as "Does God exist?" or "Is man's will free?" by looking at the practical consequences of accepting this or that answer. James says, "The pragmatic method tries to interpret each notion (or theory) by tracing its respective practical consequences.... If no practical differences whatever can be traced... they mean practically the same thing," and ends the argument. As a theory of truth, James says that an idea is true if it works in daily life. (Stumpf, 1994, p. 938)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Pragmatism

  • 7 Connectionism

       While connectionism as an AI theory comes in many different forms, they all seem to share the idea that the representation of information is based on weights of connections between processing units in a network, and information processing consists of (i) the units transforming their input into some output, which is then (ii) modulated by the weights of connections as inputs to other units. Connectionist theories especially emphasize a form of learning in which continuous functions adjust the weights in the network. In some connectionist theories the above "pure" form is mixed with symbol manipulation processes. (Chandrasekaran, 1990, p. 21)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Connectionism

  • 8 БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ

    Мы приняли следующие сокращения для наиболее часто упоминаемых книг и журналов:
    IJP - International Journal of Psycho-analysis
    JAPA - Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
    SE - Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed. James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953—74.)
    PSOC - Psychoanalytic Study of the Child (New Haven: Yale University Press)
    PQ - Psychoanalytic Quarterly
    WAF - The Writings of Anna Freud, ed. Anna Freud (New York: International Universities Press, 1966—74)
    PMC - Psychoanalysis The Major Concepts ed. Burness E. Moore and Bernard D. Fine (New Haven: Yale University Press)
    \
    О словаре: _about - Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts
    \
    1. Abend, S. M. Identity. PMC. Forthcoming.
    2. Abend, S. M. (1974) Problems of identity. PQ, 43.
    3. Abend, S. M., Porder, M. S. & Willick, M. S. (1983) Borderline Patients. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    4. Abraham, K. (1916) The first pregenital stage of libido. Selected Papers. London, Hogarth Press, 1948.
    5. Abraham, K. (1917) Ejaculatio praecox. In: selected Papers. New York Basic Books.
    6. Abraham, K. (1921) Contributions to the theory of the anal character. Selected Papers. New York: Basic Books, 1953.
    7. Abraham, K. (1924) A Short study of the development of the libido, viewed in the light of mental disorders. In: Selected Papers. London: Hogarth Press, 1927.
    8. Abraham, K. (1924) Manic-depressive states and the pre-genital levels of the libido. In: Selected Papers. London: Hogarth Press, 1949.
    9. Abraham, K. (1924) Selected Papers. London: Hogarth Press, 1948.
    10. Abraham, K. (1924) The influence of oral erotism on character formation. Ibid.
    11. Abraham, K. (1925) The history of an impostor in the light of psychoanalytic knowledge. In: Clinical Papers and Essays on Psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books, 1955, vol. 2.
    12. Abrams, S. (1971) The psychoanalytic unconsciousness. In: The Unconscious Today, ed. M. Kanzer. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    13. Abrams, S. (1981) Insight. PSOC, 36.
    14. Abse, D W. (1985) The depressive character In Depressive States and their Treatment, ed. V. Volkan New York: Jason Aronson.
    15. Abse, D. W. (1985) Hysteria and Related Mental Disorders. Bristol: John Wright.
    16. Ackner, B. (1954) Depersonalization. J. Ment. Sci., 100.
    17. Adler, A. (1924) Individual Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
    18. Akhtar, S. (1984) The syndrome of identity diffusion. Amer. J. Psychiat., 141.
    19. Alexander, F. (1950) Psychosomatic Medicine. New York: Norton.
    20. Allen, D. W. (1974) The Feat- of Looking. Charlottesvill, Va: Univ. Press of Virginia.
    21. Allen, D. W. (1980) Psychoanalytic treatment of the exhibitionist. In: Exhibitionist, Description, Assessment, and Treatment, ed. D. Cox. New York: Garland STPM Press.
    22. Allport, G. (1937) Personality. New York: Henry Holt.
    23. Almansi, R. J. (1960) The face-breast equation. JAPA, 6.
    24. Almansi, R. J. (1979) Scopophilia and object loss. PQ, 47.
    25. Altman, L. Z. (1969) The Dream in Psychoanalysis. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    26. Altman, L. Z. (1977) Some vicissitudes of love. JAPA, 25.
    27. American Psychiatric Association. (1987) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3d ed. revised. Washington, D. C.
    28. Ansbacher, Z. & Ansbacher, R. (1956) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. New York: Basic Books.
    29. Anthony, E. J. (1981) Shame, guilt, and the feminine self in psychoanalysis. In: Object and Self, ed. S. Tuttman, C. Kaye & M. Zimmerman. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    30. Arlow. J. A. (1953) Masturbation and symptom formation. JAPA, 1.
    31. Arlow. J. A. (1959) The structure of the deja vu experience. JAPA, 7.
    32. Arlow. J. A. (1961) Ego psychology and the study of mythology. JAPA, 9.
    33. Arlow. J. A. (1963) Conflict, regression and symptom formation. IJP, 44.
    34. Arlow. J. A. (1966) Depersonalization and derealization. In: Psychoanalysis: A General Psychology, ed. R. M. Loewenstein, L. M. Newman, M. Schur & A. J. Solnit. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    35. Arlow. J. A. (1969) Fantasy, memory and reality testing. PQ, 38.
    36. Arlow. J. A. (1969) Unconscious fantasy and disturbances of mental experience. PQ, 38.
    37. Arlow. J. A. (1970) The psychopathology of the psychoses. IJP, 51.
    38. Arlow. J. A. (1975) The structural hypothesis. PQ, 44.
    39. Arlow. J. A. (1977) Affects and the psychoanalytic situation. IJP, 58.
    40. Arlow. J. A. (1979) Metaphor and the psychoanalytic situation. PQ, 48.
    41. Arlow. J. A. (1979) The genesis of interpretation. JAPA, 27 (suppl.).
    42. Arlow. J. A. (1982) Problems of the superego concept. PSOC, 37.
    43. Arlow. J. A. (1984) Disturbances of the sense of time. PQ, 53.
    44. Arlow. J. A. (1985) Some technical problems of countertransference. PQ, 54.
    45. Arlow, J. A. & Brenner, C. (1963) Psychoanalytic Concepts and the Structural Theory, New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    46. Arlow, J. A. & Brenner, C. (1969) The psychopathology of the psychoses. IJP, 50.
    47. Asch, S. S. (1966) Depression. PSOC, 21.
    48. Asch, S. S. (1976) Varieties of negative therapeutic reactions and problems of technique. JAPA, 24.
    49. Atkins, N. (1970) The Oedipus myth. Adolescence, and the succession of generations. JAPA, 18.
    50. Atkinson, J. W. & Birch, D. (1970) The Dynamics of Action. New York: Wiley.
    51. Bachrach, H. M. & Leaff, L. A. (1978) Analyzability. JAPA, 26.
    52. Bacon, C. (1956) A developmental theory of female homosexuality. In: Perversions,ed, S. Lorand & M. Balint. New York: Gramercy.
    53. Bak, R. C. (1953) Fetishism. JAPA. 1.
    54. Bak, R. C. (1968) The phallic woman. PSOC, 23.
    55. Bak, R. C. & Stewart, W. A. (1974) Fetishism, transvestism, and voyeurism. An American Handbook of Psychiatry, ed. S. Arieti. New York: Basic Books, vol. 3.
    56. Balint, A. (1949) Love for mother and mother-love. IJP, 30.
    57. Balter, L., Lothane, Z. & Spencer, J. H. (1980) On the analyzing instrument, PQ, 49.
    58. Basch, M. F. (1973) Psychoanalysis and theory formation. Ann. Psychoanal., 1.
    59. Basch, M. F. (1976) The concept of affect. JAPA, 24.
    60. Basch, M. F. (1981) Selfobject disorders and psychoanalytic theory. JAPA, 29.
    61. Basch, M. F. (1983) Emphatic understanding. JAPA. 31.
    62. Balldry, F. Character. PMC. Forthcoming.
    63. Balldry, F. (1983) The evolution of the concept of character in Freud's writings. JAPA. 31.
    64. Begelman, D. A. (1971) Misnaming, metaphors, the medical model and some muddles. Psychiatry, 34.
    65. Behrends, R. S. & Blatt, E. J. (1985) Internalization and psychological development throughout the life cycle. PSOC, 40.
    66. Bell, A. (1961) Some observations on the role of the scrotal sac and testicles JAPA, 9.
    67. Benedeck, T. (1949) The psychosomatic implications of the primary unit. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat., 19.
    68. Beres, C. (1958) Vicissitudes of superego functions and superego precursors in childhood. FSOC, 13.
    69. Beres, D. Conflict. PMC. Forthcoming.
    70. Beres, D. (1956) Ego deviation and the concept of schizophrenia. PSOC, 11.
    71. Beres, D. (1960) Perception, imagination and reality. IJP, 41.
    72. Beres, D. (1960) The psychoanalytic psychology of imagination. JAPA, 8.
    73. Beres, D. & Joseph, E. D. (1965) Structure and function in psychoanalysis. IJP, 46.
    74. Beres, D. (1970) The concept of mental representation in psychoanalysis. IJP, 51.
    75. Berg, M D. (1977) The externalizing transference. IJP, 58.
    76. Bergeret, J. (1985) Reflection on the scientific responsi bilities of the International Psychoanalytical Association. Memorandum distributed at 34th IPA Congress, Humburg.
    77. Bergman, A. (1978) From mother to the world outside. In: Grolnick et. al. (1978).
    78. Bergmann, M. S. (1980) On the intrapsychic function of falling in love. PQ, 49.
    79. Berliner, B. (1966) Psychodynamics of the depressive character. Psychoanal. Forum, 1.
    80. Bernfeld, S. (1931) Zur Sublimierungslehre. Imago, 17.
    81. Bibring, E. (1937) On the theory of the therapeutic results of psychoanalysis. IJP, 18.
    82. Bibring, E. (1941) The conception of the repetition compulsion. PQ, 12.
    83. Bibring, E. (1953) The mechanism of depression. In: Affective Disorders, ed. P. Greenacre. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    84. Bibring, E. (1954) Psychoanalysis and the dynamic psychotherapies. JAPA, 2.
    85. Binswanger, H. (1963) Positive aspects of the animus. Zьrich: Spring.
    86. Bion Francesca Abingdon: Fleetwood Press.
    87. Bion, W. R. (1952) Croup dynamics. IJP, 33.
    88. Bion, W. R. (1961) Experiences in Groups. London: Tavistock.
    89. Bion, W. R. (1962) A theory of thinking. IJP, 40.
    90. Bion, W. R. (1962) Learning from Experience. London: William Heinemann.
    91. Bion, W. R. (1963) Elements of Psychoanalysis. London: William Heinemann.
    92. Bion, W. R. (1965) Transformations. London: William Heinemann.
    93. Bion, W. R. (1970) Attention and Interpretation. London: Tavistock.
    94. Bion, W. R. (1985) All My Sins Remembered, ed. Francesca Bion. Adingdon: Fleetwood Press.
    95. Bird, B. (1972) Notes on transference. JAPA, 20.
    96. Blanck, G. & Blanck, R. (1974) Ego Psychology. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
    97. Blatt, S. J. (1974) Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. PSOC, 29.
    98. Blau, A. (1955) A unitary hypothesis of emotion. PQ, 24.
    99. Bleuler, E. (1911) Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias. New York: Int. Univ. Press, 1951.
    100. Blos, P. (1954) Prolonged adolescence. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat., 24.
    101. Blos, P. (1962) On Adolescence. New York: Free Press.
    102. Blos, P. (1972) The epigenesia of the adult neurosis. 27.
    103. Blos, P. (1979) Modification in the traditional psychoanalytic theory of adolescent development. Adolescent Psychiat., 8.
    104. Blos, P. (1984) Son and father. JAPA_. 32.
    105. Blum, G. S. (1963) Prepuberty and adolescence, In Studies ed. R. E. Grinder. New York: McMillan.
    106. Blum, H. P. Symbolism. FMC. Forthcoming.
    107. Blum, H. P. (1976) Female Psychology. JAPA, 24 (suppl.).
    108. Blum, H. P. (1976) Masochism, the ego ideal and the psychology of women. JAPA, 24 (suppl.).
    109. Blum, H. P. (1980) The value of reconstruction in adult psychoanalysis. IJP, 61.
    110. Blum, H. P. (1981) Forbidden quest and the analytic ideal. PQ, 50.
    111. Blum, H. P. (1983) Defense and resistance. Foreword. JAFA, 31.
    112. Blum, H. P., Kramer, Y., Richards, A. K. & Richards, A. D., eds. (1988) Fantasy, Myth and Reality: Essays in Honor of Jacob A. Arlow. Madison, Conn.: Int. Univ. Press.
    113. Boehm, F. (1930) The femininity-complex In men. IJP,11.
    114. Boesky, D. Structural theory. PMC. Forthcoming.
    115. Boesky, D. (1973) Deja raconte as a screen defense. PQ, 42.
    116. Boesky, D. (1982) Acting out. IJP, 63.
    117. Boesky, D. (1986) Questions about Sublimation In Psychoanalysis the Science of Mental Conflict, ed. A. D. Richards & M. S. Willick. Hillsdale, N. J.: Analytic Press.
    118. Bornstein, B. (1935) Phobia in a 2 1/2-year-old child. PQ, 4.
    119. Bornstein, B. (1951) On latency. PSOC, 6.
    120. Bornstein, M., ed. (1983) Values and neutrality in psychoanalysis. Psychoanal. Inquiry, 3.
    121. Bowlby, J. (1960) Grief and morning in infancy and early childhood. PSOC. 15.
    122. Bowlby, J. (1961) Process of mourning. IJP. 42.
    123. Bowlby, J. (1980) Attachment and Loss, vol. 3. New York: Basic Books.
    124. Bradlow, P. A. (1973) Depersonalization, ego splitting, non-human fantasy and shame. IJP, 54.
    125. Brazelton, T. B., Kozlowsky, B. & Main, M. (1974) The early motherinfant interaction. In: The Effect of the Infant on Its Caregiver, ed. M. Lewis & L. Rosenblum New York Wiley.
    126. Brenner, C. (1957) The nature and development of the concept of repression in Freud's writings. PSOC, 12.
    127. Brenner, C. (1959) The masochistic character. JAPA, 7.
    128. Brenner, C. (1973) An Elementary Textbook of Psycho-analysis. New York Int. Univ. Press.
    129. Brenner, C. (1974) On the nature and development of affects PQ, 43.
    130. Brenner, C. (1976) Psychoanalytic Technique and Psychic Conflict. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    131. Brenner, C. (1979) The Mind in Conflict. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    132. Brenner, C. (1979) Working alliance, therapeutic alliance and transference. JAPA, 27.
    133. Brenner, C. (1981) Defense and defense mechanisms. PQ, 50.
    134. Brenner, C. (1983) Defense. In: the Mind in Conflict. New York Int. Univ. Press.
    135. Bressler, B. (1965) The concept of the self. Psychoanalytic Review, 52.
    136. Breuer, J. & Freud, S. (1983—95) Studies on Hysteria. SE, 3.
    137. Breznitz, S., ed. (1983) The Denial of Stress. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    138. Brody, S. (1964) Passivity. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    139. Brown, H. (1970) Psycholinquistics. New York: Free Press.
    140. Bruner, J. S. (1964) The course of cognitive growth. Amer. Psychologist. 19.
    141. Bruner, J., Jolly, A. & Sylva, K. (1976) Play. New York Basic Books.
    142. Bruner, J. E., Olver, R. R. &Greenfield, P. M. (1966) Studies in Cognitive Growth. New York: Wiley.
    143. Buie, D H. (1981) Empathy. JAPA, 29.
    144. Burgner, M. & Edgeumble, R. (1972) Some problems in the conceptualization of early object relationships. PSOC, 27.
    145. Call, J. ed. (1979) Basic Handbook of Child Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.
    146. Carroll, G. (1956) Language, Thought and Reality. Cambridge & London: M. I. T. Press & John Wiley.
    147. Cavenar, J. O. & Nash, J. L. (1976) The effects of Combat on the normal personality. Comprehensive Psychiat., 17.
    148. Chassequet-Smirgel, J. (1978) Reflections on the connection between perversion and sadism. IJP, 59.
    149. Chomsky, N. (1978) Language and unconscious knowledge. In: Psychoanalysis and Language, ed. J. H. Smith. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, vol. 3.
    150. Clower, V. (1975) Significance of masturbation in female sexual development and function. In: Masturbation from Infancy to Senescence, ed. I. Marcus & J. Francis. New York: Int. Uni" Press.
    151. Coen, S. J. & Bradlow, P. A. (1982) Twin transference as a compromise formation. JAPA, 30.
    152. Compton, A. Object and relationships. PMC. Forthcoming.
    153. Cullen, W. (1777) First Lines of the Practice of Psysic. Edinburgh: Bell, Brandfute.
    154. Curtis, B. C. (1969) Psychoanalytic understanding and treatment of impotence. In: Sexual Function and Dysfunction, ed. P. J. Fink & V. B. O. Hummett. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis.
    155. Darwin, C. (1874) The Descent of Man. New York: Hurst.
    156. Davidoff-Hirsch, H. (1985) Oedipal and preoedipal phenomena. JAPA, 33.
    157. Davis, M. & Wallbridge, D. (1981) Boundary and Space. New York: Brunner-Mazel.
    158. Deutsch, H. (1932) Homosexuality in women. PQ, 1.
    159. Deutsch, H. (1934) Some forms of emotional disturbance and their relationship to schizophrenia. PQ, 11.
    160. Deutsch, H. (1937) Absence of grief. PQ, 6.
    161. Deutsch, H. (1942) Some forms of emotional disturbance and their relationship to schizophrenia. PQ, 11.
    162. Deutsch, H. (1955) The impostor. In: Neuroses and Character Types. New York: Int. Univ. Press, 1965.
    163. Devereux, G. (1953) Why Oedipus killed Lains. IJP, 34.
    164. Dewald, P. (1982) Psychoanalytic perspectives On resistance. In: resistance, Psychodynamics. and Behavioral Approaches, ed. P. Wachtel. New York: Plenum Press.
    165. Dickes, R. (1963) Fetishistic behavior. JAPA. 11.
    166. Dickes, R. (1965) The defensive function of an altered state of consciousness. JAPA, 13.
    167. Dickes, R. (1967) Severe regressive disruption of the therapeutic alliance. JAPA, 15.
    168. Dickes, R. (1981) Sexual myths and misinformation. In: Understanding Human Behaviour in Health and Illness, ed. R. C. Simon & H. Pardes. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
    169. Dorpat, T. L. (1985) Denial and Defense in the Therapeutic Situation. New York: Jason Aronson.
    170. Downey, T. W. (1978) Transitional phenomena in the analysis of early adolescent males. PSOC, 33.
    171. Dunbar, F. (1954) Emotions and Bodily Functions. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
    172. Easson, W. M. (1973) The earliest ego development, primitive memory traces, and the Isakower phenomenon. PQ, 42.
    173. Edelheit, H. (1971) Mythopoiesis and the primal scene. Psychoanal. Study Society, 5.
    174. Edgcumbe, R. & Burgner, M. (1972) Some problems in the conceptualization of early object relation ships, part I. PSOC, 27.
    175. Edgcumbe, R. & Burgner, M. (1975) The phallicnarcissistic phase. PSOC, 30.
    176. Eidelberg, L. (1960) A third contribution to the study of slips of the tongue. IJP, 41.
    177. Eidelberg, L. (1968) Encyclopedia of Psychoanalysis. New York: The Free Press; London: Collier-MacMillan.
    178. Eissler, K. R. (1953) The effect of the structure of the ego on psychoanalytic technique. JAPA, 1.
    179. Ellenberg, H. F. (1970) The Discovery of the Unconscious. New York: Basic Books.
    180. Emde, R. N. (1980) Toward a psychoanalytic theory of affect: I. & G. H. Pollock. Washington NYMH.
    181. Emde R., Gaensbaner, T. & Harmon R. (1976) Emotional Expression in Infancy. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    182. Erode R. & Harmon, R. J. (1972) Endogenous and exogenous smiling systems in early infancy. J. Amer. Acad. Child Psychiat., 11.
    183. Engel, G. L. (1962) Psychological Development in Health and Disease. New York Saunders.
    184. Engel, G. L. (1967) Psychoanalytic theory of somatic disorder. JAPA, 15.
    185. Engel, G. L. (1968) A reconsideration of the role of conversion in somatic disease. Compr. Psychiat., 94.
    186. English, H. B. & English, A. C. (1958) A comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms. New York: David McKay.
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    Словарь психоаналитических терминов и понятий > БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ

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    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography

  • 10 Cognitive Science

       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense.... [P]eople and intelligent computers turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       2) Experimental Psychology, Theoretical Linguistics, and Computational Simulation of Cognitive Processes Are All Components of Cognitive Science
       I went away from the Symposium with a strong conviction, more intuitive than rational, that human experimental psychology, theoretical linguistics, and computer simulation of cognitive processes were all pieces of a larger whole, and that the future would see progressive elaboration and coordination of their shared concerns.... I have been working toward a cognitive science for about twenty years beginning before I knew what to call it. (G. A. Miller, 1979, p. 9)
        Cognitive Science studies the nature of cognition in human beings, other animals, and inanimate machines (if such a thing is possible). While computers are helpful within cognitive science, they are not essential to its being. A science of cognition could still be pursued even without these machines.
        Computer Science studies various kinds of problems and the use of computers to solve them, without concern for the means by which we humans might otherwise resolve them. There could be no computer science if there were no machines of this kind, because they are indispensable to its being. Artificial Intelligence is a special branch of computer science that investigates the extent to which the mental powers of human beings can be captured by means of machines.
       There could be cognitive science without artificial intelligence but there could be no artificial intelligence without cognitive science. One final caveat: In the case of an emerging new discipline such as cognitive science there is an almost irresistible temptation to identify the discipline itself (as a field of inquiry) with one of the theories that inspired it (such as the computational conception...). This, however, is a mistake. The field of inquiry (or "domain") stands to specific theories as questions stand to possible answers. The computational conception should properly be viewed as a research program in cognitive science, where "research programs" are answers that continue to attract followers. (Fetzer, 1996, pp. xvi-xvii)
       What is the nature of knowledge and how is this knowledge used? These questions lie at the core of both psychology and artificial intelligence.
       The psychologist who studies "knowledge systems" wants to know how concepts are structured in the human mind, how such concepts develop, and how they are used in understanding and behavior. The artificial intelligence researcher wants to know how to program a computer so that it can understand and interact with the outside world. The two orientations intersect when the psychologist and the computer scientist agree that the best way to approach the problem of building an intelligent machine is to emulate the human conceptual mechanisms that deal with language.... The name "cognitive science" has been used to refer to this convergence of interests in psychology and artificial intelligence....
       This working partnership in "cognitive science" does not mean that psychologists and computer scientists are developing a single comprehensive theory in which people are no different from machines. Psychology and artificial intelligence have many points of difference in methods and goals.... We simply want to work on an important area of overlapping interest, namely a theory of knowledge systems. As it turns out, this overlap is substantial. For both people and machines, each in their own way, there is a serious problem in common of making sense out of what they hear, see, or are told about the world. The conceptual apparatus necessary to perform even a partial feat of understanding is formidable and fascinating. (Schank & Abelson, 1977, pp. 1-2)
       Within the last dozen years a general change in scientific outlook has occurred, consonant with the point of view represented here. One can date the change roughly from 1956: in psychology, by the appearance of Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin's Study of Thinking and George Miller's "The Magical Number Seven"; in linguistics, by Noam Chomsky's "Three Models of Language"; and in computer science, by our own paper on the Logic Theory Machine. (Newell & Simon, 1972, p. 4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Cognitive Science

  • 11 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 12 teórico

    adj.
    1 theoretic, hypothetical, speculative, theoretical.
    2 not practical.
    m.
    theoretician, theorist.
    * * *
    1 theoretic, theoretical
    ► nombre masculino,nombre femenino
    1 theoretician, theorist
    * * *
    1. (f. - teórica)
    noun
    2. (f. - teórica)
    adj.
    * * *
    teórico, -a
    1.
    2.
    SM / F theoretician, theorist
    * * *
    I
    - ca adjetivo <existencia/valor/curso> theoretical
    II
    - ca masculino, femenino theoretician, theorist
    * * *
    I
    - ca adjetivo <existencia/valor/curso> theoretical
    II
    - ca masculino, femenino theoretician, theorist
    * * *
    teórico1
    1 = theoretician, theorist.

    Ex: Seymour Lubetzky is considered by many librarian to be the greatest theoretician of descriptive cataloging in this century.

    Ex: In parallel with the work of the classification theorists, general systems theory was evolved to consider similar problems.

    teórico2
    2 = theoretical, notional, theoretic.

    Ex: There is an alternative method for the design of subject retrieval devices, and that is to build languages or schemes which depend upon some theoretical views about the nature and structure of knowledge.

    Ex: This technique consists of making systematically explicit all the notional, semantic, and cognitive elements contained in the subject to be searched.
    Ex: The author examines social capital as a theoretic construct with the potential to enhance the understanding of public relations contribution to the organisational bottom line.
    * base teórica = theoretical underpinning.
    * científico teórico = theorist.
    * concepto teórico = theoretical concept.
    * examen teórico = theory test.
    * investigador teórico = theorist.

    * * *
    teórico1 -ca
    1 ‹existencia/valor› theoretical
    2 ‹curso› theoretical
    no pasó el examen teórico he didn't pass the theory (exam)
    teórico2 -ca
    masculine, feminine
    theoretician, theorist
    * * *

     

    teórico
    ◊ -ca adjetivo ‹existencia/valor/curso› theoretical;

    examen teórico theory (exam)
    teórico,-a adjetivo theoretical

    ' teórico' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    teórica
    - práctico
    English:
    academic
    - sandwich course
    - theoretic
    - theoretical
    - theoretician
    * * *
    teórico, -a
    ♦ adj
    [caso, conocimientos, examen] theoretical;
    clases teóricas theory classes
    ♦ nm,f
    [persona] theorist
    ♦ nm
    [examen de conducir] written exam
    * * *
    I adj theoretical
    II m, teórica f theorist
    * * *
    teórico, -ca adj
    : theoretical
    teórico, -ca n
    : theorist

    Spanish-English dictionary > teórico

  • 13 Philosophy

       And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)
       Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)
       As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)
       It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic influences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)
       Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)
       I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)
       What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.
       This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).
       The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....
       Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)
       8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science
       In the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)
       Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....
       Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)
       In his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy

  • 14 poner de manifiesto

    to make evident
    * * *
    (v.) = bring into + relief, highlight, show, state, throw into + relief, throw up, evince, illustrate, underscore, underline, emphasise [emphasize, -USA], bring to + light, make + it + clear, lay + bare, provide + insight into, reveal, flag + Nombre + up
    Ex. They can bring into relief differing conditions in member countries and they often lend weight to arguments for or against various policy options.
    Ex. In each case the object of the discussion will be to highlight what appear to be the significant aspects, particularly those concerning the background which affect the nature of the scheme.
    Ex. This shows a record in an abstracts based bibliographic data base.
    Ex. Short abstracts are generally preferred, but there are instances where the most effective approach is to cite the original unamended, and to state that this is what has been done.
    Ex. The employment of machines, far from replacing man, can serve to enhance his social value and status by throwing into relief those human tasks that machines cannot perform.
    Ex. Demands from clients will often throw up an occurrence of similar problems, revealing perhaps the operation of an injustice, the lack of an amenity in the neighbourhood, or simply bureaucratic inefficiency.
    Ex. New computer based technologies are evincing revolutionary changes in the educational curriculum for schools of library and information science.
    Ex. The presence of eggshells, faecal pellets, and silk threads in association with a mite-like animal illustrates a complex ecosystem.
    Ex. All I wanted to underscore with these four horror stories is that the judicious, discretionary assignment of added entries can either powerfully inhibit or promote access to the documents.
    Ex. Word processing packages must be able to permit the user to manipulate test, as is necessary in alignment of margins, insertion and deletion of paragraphs, arrange for text to appear in the centre of the page and underline.
    Ex. Analytical cataloguing aims to emphasise the content of documents, rather than relying entirely upon cataloguing whole works.
    Ex. Her editorial does an excellent job of bringing to light the issues facing libraries, authors, and library patrons regarding the possibility and desirability of a single international copyright law.
    Ex. Simple linking of Students and Attitudes would still not make it clear whether it was the attitudes 'of' or 'towards' Students.
    Ex. The aim of this article is to lay bare the causes of this state of affairs.
    Ex. This article reports the findings of an investigation which was conducted in order to determine if either the impact factor or the immediacy index provide useful insights into the qualitative relations among scientific journals.
    Ex. A study of the major general schemes reveals a wide gulf between theory, as outlined in the previous chapter, and practice, as reflected in the major schemes.
    Ex. If you spot an error then flag it up to your bank promptly and insist they take action to rectify it.
    * * *
    (v.) = bring into + relief, highlight, show, state, throw into + relief, throw up, evince, illustrate, underscore, underline, emphasise [emphasize, -USA], bring to + light, make + it + clear, lay + bare, provide + insight into, reveal, flag + Nombre + up

    Ex: They can bring into relief differing conditions in member countries and they often lend weight to arguments for or against various policy options.

    Ex: In each case the object of the discussion will be to highlight what appear to be the significant aspects, particularly those concerning the background which affect the nature of the scheme.
    Ex: This shows a record in an abstracts based bibliographic data base.
    Ex: Short abstracts are generally preferred, but there are instances where the most effective approach is to cite the original unamended, and to state that this is what has been done.
    Ex: The employment of machines, far from replacing man, can serve to enhance his social value and status by throwing into relief those human tasks that machines cannot perform.
    Ex: Demands from clients will often throw up an occurrence of similar problems, revealing perhaps the operation of an injustice, the lack of an amenity in the neighbourhood, or simply bureaucratic inefficiency.
    Ex: New computer based technologies are evincing revolutionary changes in the educational curriculum for schools of library and information science.
    Ex: The presence of eggshells, faecal pellets, and silk threads in association with a mite-like animal illustrates a complex ecosystem.
    Ex: All I wanted to underscore with these four horror stories is that the judicious, discretionary assignment of added entries can either powerfully inhibit or promote access to the documents.
    Ex: Word processing packages must be able to permit the user to manipulate test, as is necessary in alignment of margins, insertion and deletion of paragraphs, arrange for text to appear in the centre of the page and underline.
    Ex: Analytical cataloguing aims to emphasise the content of documents, rather than relying entirely upon cataloguing whole works.
    Ex: Her editorial does an excellent job of bringing to light the issues facing libraries, authors, and library patrons regarding the possibility and desirability of a single international copyright law.
    Ex: Simple linking of Students and Attitudes would still not make it clear whether it was the attitudes 'of' or 'towards' Students.
    Ex: The aim of this article is to lay bare the causes of this state of affairs.
    Ex: This article reports the findings of an investigation which was conducted in order to determine if either the impact factor or the immediacy index provide useful insights into the qualitative relations among scientific journals.
    Ex: A study of the major general schemes reveals a wide gulf between theory, as outlined in the previous chapter, and practice, as reflected in the major schemes.
    Ex: If you spot an error then flag it up to your bank promptly and insist they take action to rectify it.

    Spanish-English dictionary > poner de manifiesto

  • 15 poner de relieve

    figurado to emphasize, highlight, underline
    ————————
    to emphasize
    * * *
    (v.) = bring into + relief, throw into + relief, underscore, highlight, show, state, throw up, evince, illustrate, underline, emphasise [emphasize, -USA], flag + Nombre + up, reveal
    Ex. They can bring into relief differing conditions in member countries and they often lend weight to arguments for or against various policy options.
    Ex. The employment of machines, far from replacing man, can serve to enhance his social value and status by throwing into relief those human tasks that machines cannot perform.
    Ex. All I wanted to underscore with these four horror stories is that the judicious, discretionary assignment of added entries can either powerfully inhibit or promote access to the documents.
    Ex. In each case the object of the discussion will be to highlight what appear to be the significant aspects, particularly those concerning the background which affect the nature of the scheme.
    Ex. This shows a record in an abstracts based bibliographic data base.
    Ex. Short abstracts are generally preferred, but there are instances where the most effective approach is to cite the original unamended, and to state that this is what has been done.
    Ex. Demands from clients will often throw up an occurrence of similar problems, revealing perhaps the operation of an injustice, the lack of an amenity in the neighbourhood, or simply bureaucratic inefficiency.
    Ex. New computer based technologies are evincing revolutionary changes in the educational curriculum for schools of library and information science.
    Ex. The presence of eggshells, faecal pellets, and silk threads in association with a mite-like animal illustrates a complex ecosystem.
    Ex. Word processing packages must be able to permit the user to manipulate test, as is necessary in alignment of margins, insertion and deletion of paragraphs, arrange for text to appear in the centre of the page and underline.
    Ex. Analytical cataloguing aims to emphasise the content of documents, rather than relying entirely upon cataloguing whole works.
    Ex. If you spot an error then flag it up to your bank promptly and insist they take action to rectify it.
    Ex. A study of the major general schemes reveals a wide gulf between theory, as outlined in the previous chapter, and practice, as reflected in the major schemes.
    * * *
    (v.) = bring into + relief, throw into + relief, underscore, highlight, show, state, throw up, evince, illustrate, underline, emphasise [emphasize, -USA], flag + Nombre + up, reveal

    Ex: They can bring into relief differing conditions in member countries and they often lend weight to arguments for or against various policy options.

    Ex: The employment of machines, far from replacing man, can serve to enhance his social value and status by throwing into relief those human tasks that machines cannot perform.
    Ex: All I wanted to underscore with these four horror stories is that the judicious, discretionary assignment of added entries can either powerfully inhibit or promote access to the documents.
    Ex: In each case the object of the discussion will be to highlight what appear to be the significant aspects, particularly those concerning the background which affect the nature of the scheme.
    Ex: This shows a record in an abstracts based bibliographic data base.
    Ex: Short abstracts are generally preferred, but there are instances where the most effective approach is to cite the original unamended, and to state that this is what has been done.
    Ex: Demands from clients will often throw up an occurrence of similar problems, revealing perhaps the operation of an injustice, the lack of an amenity in the neighbourhood, or simply bureaucratic inefficiency.
    Ex: New computer based technologies are evincing revolutionary changes in the educational curriculum for schools of library and information science.
    Ex: The presence of eggshells, faecal pellets, and silk threads in association with a mite-like animal illustrates a complex ecosystem.
    Ex: Word processing packages must be able to permit the user to manipulate test, as is necessary in alignment of margins, insertion and deletion of paragraphs, arrange for text to appear in the centre of the page and underline.
    Ex: Analytical cataloguing aims to emphasise the content of documents, rather than relying entirely upon cataloguing whole works.
    Ex: If you spot an error then flag it up to your bank promptly and insist they take action to rectify it.
    Ex: A study of the major general schemes reveals a wide gulf between theory, as outlined in the previous chapter, and practice, as reflected in the major schemes.

    Spanish-English dictionary > poner de relieve

  • 16 gestor

    adj.
    1 managing.
    2 negotiating.
    m.
    1 manager, executive, doer.
    2 promoter.
    * * *
    1 managing
    ► nombre masculino,nombre femenino
    1 (administrador) manager, director
    \
    gestor administrativo agent, business agent
    * * *
    gestor, -a
    1.
    ADJ (=que gestiona) managing
    2.
    SM / F manager/manageress; (=promotor) promoter; (=agente) business agent, representative; (tb: gestor(a) administrativo/a) agent undertaking business with government departments, insurance companies etc
    3.
    SM
    * * *
    I
    - tora adjetivo
    b) ( que administra) <órgano/comisión> administrative, managing (before n)
    II
    * * *
    = steward, managing, caretaker, managerial.
    Nota: Adjetivo.
    Ex. This article explores whether the archivist is a steward for some wider amorphous body including past and future generations.
    Ex. We have seen that the relationships of the Publications Office with the institutions and other bodies of the European Communities may in theory, but do not yet in practice extend far beyond those with the six managing institutions.
    Ex. Frequently, the creators and caretakers of a data base have an irresistible impulse to give it a fixup, a paint job, or a new colour scheme.
    Ex. The course had concentrated on executive decision making, with a side excursion into the study and findings of Henry Mintzberg as reported in his book, 'The Nature of managerial Work'.
    ----
    * basado en un gestor de bases de datos = DBMS-based.
    * gestor de bases de datos = database management system (DBMS), database manager, DBMS system.
    * gestor de bases de datos relacionales = relational database management system.
    * gestor de colas de impresión = print spooler.
    * gestor de contenidos = content management software (CMS).
    * gestor de documentación administrativa = record manager [records manager], record(s) manager.
    * gestor de información = information software package.
    * gestor de la información = information manager, information handler.
    * gestor del conocimiento = knowledge worker, knowledge manager.
    * gestor de nivel medio = middle manager.
    * gestor de tesauros = thesaurus software.
    * gestor documental = document retrieval system, information retrieval system (IRS), text information management system, document management software, document management system, information manager, record manager [records manager].
    * NAGARA (Asociación Nacional de Archiveros y Gestores de Documentos del Gobie = National Association of Government Archivists and Records Administrators (NAGARA).
    * organismo gestor de bibliotecas = library authority.
    * * *
    I
    - tora adjetivo
    b) ( que administra) <órgano/comisión> administrative, managing (before n)
    II
    * * *
    = steward, managing, caretaker, managerial.
    Nota: Adjetivo.

    Ex: This article explores whether the archivist is a steward for some wider amorphous body including past and future generations.

    Ex: We have seen that the relationships of the Publications Office with the institutions and other bodies of the European Communities may in theory, but do not yet in practice extend far beyond those with the six managing institutions.
    Ex: Frequently, the creators and caretakers of a data base have an irresistible impulse to give it a fixup, a paint job, or a new colour scheme.
    Ex: The course had concentrated on executive decision making, with a side excursion into the study and findings of Henry Mintzberg as reported in his book, 'The Nature of managerial Work'.
    * basado en un gestor de bases de datos = DBMS-based.
    * gestor de bases de datos = database management system (DBMS), database manager, DBMS system.
    * gestor de bases de datos relacionales = relational database management system.
    * gestor de colas de impresión = print spooler.
    * gestor de contenidos = content management software (CMS).
    * gestor de documentación administrativa = record manager [records manager], record(s) manager.
    * gestor de información = information software package.
    * gestor de la información = information manager, information handler.
    * gestor del conocimiento = knowledge worker, knowledge manager.
    * gestor de nivel medio = middle manager.
    * gestor de tesauros = thesaurus software.
    * gestor documental = document retrieval system, information retrieval system (IRS), text information management system, document management software, document management system, information manager, record manager [records manager].
    * NAGARA (Asociación Nacional de Archiveros y Gestores de Documentos del Gobie = National Association of Government Archivists and Records Administrators (NAGARA).
    * organismo gestor de bibliotecas = library authority.

    * * *
    1
    (que tramita): una agencia gestora an agency which obtains official documents on clients' behalf
    2 (que administra) ‹órgano/comisión› administrative, managing ( before n)
    masculine, feminine
    A
    2 ( Chi) (oficioso) fixer
    Compuesto:
    gestor/gestora de riesgos
    risk manager
    B
    gestora feminine (comisión) management committee; (empresa) management company
    * * *

     

    gestor,-ora sustantivo masculino y femenino solicitor
    ' gestor' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    gestora
    * * *
    gestor, -ora
    ♦ adj
    el equipo gestor del proyecto the project management team;
    el órgano gestor de las ayudas the body responsible for the administration of the grants
    ♦ nm,f
    = person who carries out dealings with public bodies on behalf of private customers or companies, combining the roles of solicitor and accountant
    Fin gestor de fondos fund manager
    ♦ nm
    Informát gestor de archivos file manager;
    gestor de correo mail manager;
    gestor de memoria memory manager
    * * *
    person who works in a gestoría
    * * *
    gestor, - tora adj
    : facilitating, negotiating, managing
    gestor, - tora n
    : facilitator, manager

    Spanish-English dictionary > gestor

  • 17 esencia

    f.
    1 essence.
    quinta esencia quintessence
    2 extract, essence.
    3 ens.
    * * *
    1 essence
    2 (perfume) essence, perfume, scent
    \
    quinta esencia quintessence
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=base) [de teoría] essence; [de asunto, problema] heart

    en esencia — essentially, in essence

    2) [de perfume] essence
    * * *
    1) (fondo, base) essence

    en esencia — essentially, in essence

    2) (Coc, Quím, Fil) essence
    •
    * * *
    = essence, nature, substance, flavour [flavor, -USA], marrow, quid, crux.
    Ex. In simple terms, the essence of subject organisation is the division of literature (or references to literature) into manageable, or scannable categories, with each category being associated with an index term.
    Ex. In this chapter a review of the development of cataloguing codes is given in order to explain and place in context the nature of modern cataloguing codes.
    Ex. For whatever reason, Shera chose to disparage rather than to take seriously the substance of Briet's ideas.
    Ex. Plainly, in many documents sections that can be regarded as truly representative of the flavour of the original are absent or difficult to identify.
    Ex. The novel 'The Marrow of Tradition' analyzes and exposes the societal prejudices that alienate two marginalized groups from each other.
    Ex. The important moral crux at the heart of the novel 'The debt collector' is that the odds are stacked against the rehabilitation of violent criminals.
    Ex. The crux of the process is the development of multiple models.
    ----
    * aceite de esencias = essential oil.
    * en esencia = in essence, essentially.
    * en su esencia = in substance.
    * esencia de eucalipto = eucalyptus oil.
    * esencia de, la = pith and marrow of, the.
    * esencia irlandesa = Irishness.
    * * *
    1) (fondo, base) essence

    en esencia — essentially, in essence

    2) (Coc, Quím, Fil) essence
    •
    * * *
    = essence, nature, substance, flavour [flavor, -USA], marrow, quid, crux.

    Ex: In simple terms, the essence of subject organisation is the division of literature (or references to literature) into manageable, or scannable categories, with each category being associated with an index term.

    Ex: In this chapter a review of the development of cataloguing codes is given in order to explain and place in context the nature of modern cataloguing codes.
    Ex: For whatever reason, Shera chose to disparage rather than to take seriously the substance of Briet's ideas.
    Ex: Plainly, in many documents sections that can be regarded as truly representative of the flavour of the original are absent or difficult to identify.
    Ex: The novel 'The Marrow of Tradition' analyzes and exposes the societal prejudices that alienate two marginalized groups from each other.
    Ex: The important moral crux at the heart of the novel 'The debt collector' is that the odds are stacked against the rehabilitation of violent criminals.
    Ex: The crux of the process is the development of multiple models.
    * aceite de esencias = essential oil.
    * en esencia = in essence, essentially.
    * en su esencia = in substance.
    * esencia de eucalipto = eucalyptus oil.
    * esencia de, la = pith and marrow of, the.
    * esencia irlandesa = Irishness.

    * * *
    A
    1 (fondo, base) essence
    la esencia de su teoría the essence of his theory
    en esencia essentially, in essence
    se trata, en esencia, de un problema político the problem is essentially a political one, the problem is, in essence, a political one
    2 ( Fil) essence
    esencia divina divine essence
    B ( Coc, Quím) essence
    Compuestos:
    coffee essence
    turpentine, turps ( BrE)
    vanilla essence
    * * *

    esencia sustantivo femenino
    essence
    esencia sustantivo femenino essence
    ♦ Locuciones: quinta esencia, quintessence
    ' esencia' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    ser
    - extracto
    English:
    essence
    * * *
    1. [lo principal, lo básico] essence;
    en esencia in essence, essentially;
    en esencia sus opiniones apenas difieren at bottom there's little difference between their views
    2. [extracto, concentrado] essence;
    esencia de lavanda lavender water;
    esencia de café/vainilla coffee/vanilla essence
    esencia mineral mineral oil;
    esencia de trementina oil of turpentine
    * * *
    f essence;
    en esencia essentially, in essence
    * * *
    : essence

    Spanish-English dictionary > esencia

  • 18 Memory

       To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)
       [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)
       The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)
       4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology
       If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)
       We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)
       The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)
       7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging
       The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)
       A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)
       Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....
       Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)
       When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....
       However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)
       Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)
       Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)
       The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory

  • 19 Psychoanalysis

       [Psychoanalysis] seeks to prove to the ego that it is not even master in its own house, but must content itself with scanty information of what is going on unconsciously in the mind. (Freud, 1953-1974, Vol. 16, pp. 284-285)
       Although in the interview the analyst is supposedly a "passive" auditor of the "free association" narration by the subject, in point of fact the analyst does direct the course of the narrative. This by itself does not necessarily impair the evidential worth of the outcome, for even in the most meticulously conducted laboratory experiment the experimenter intervenes to obtain the data he is after. There is nevertheless the difficulty that in the nature of the case the full extent of the analyst's intervention is not a matter that is open to public scrutiny, so that by and large one has only his own testimony as to what transpires in the consulting room. It is perhaps unnecessary to say that this is not a question about the personal integrity of psychoanalytic practitioners. The point is the fundamental one that no matter how firmly we may resolve to make explicit our biases, no human being is aware of all of them, and that objectivity in science is achieved through the criticism of publicly accessible material by a community of independent inquirers.... Moreover, unless data are obtained under carefully standardized circumstances, or under different circumstances whose dependence on known variables is nevertheless established, even an extensive collection of data is an unreliable basis for inference. To be sure, analysts apparently do attempt to institute standard conditions for the conduct of interviews. But there is not much information available on the extent to which the standardization is actually enforced, or whether it relates to more than what may be superficial matters. (E. Nagel, 1959, pp. 49-50)
       3) No Necessary Incompatibility between Psychoanalysis and Certain Religious Formulations
       here would seem to be no necessary incompatibility between psychoanalysis and those religious formulations which locate God within the self. One could, indeed, argue that Freud's Id (and even more Groddeck's It), the impersonal force within which is both the core of oneself and yet not oneself, and from which in illness one become[s] alienated, is a secular formation of the insight which makes religious people believe in an immanent God. (Ryecroft, 1966, p. 22)
       Freudian analysts emphasized that their theories were constantly verified by their "clinical observations."... It was precisely this fact-that they always fitted, that they were always confirmed-which in the eyes of their admirers constituted the strongest argument in favour of these theories. It began to dawn on me that this apparent strength was in fact their weakness.... It is easy to obtain confirmations or verifications, for nearly every theory-if we look for confirmation. (Popper, 1968, pp. 3435)
       5) Psychoanalysis Is Not a Science But Rather the Interpretation of a Narrated History
       Psychoanalysis does not satisfy the standards of the sciences of observation, and the "facts" it deals with are not verifiable by multiple, independent observers.... There are no "facts" nor any observation of "facts" in psychoanalysis but rather the interpretation of a narrated history. (Ricoeur, 1974, p. 186)
       6) Some of the Qualities of a Scientific Approach Are Possessed by Psychoanalysis
       In sum: psychoanalysis is not a science, but it shares some of the qualities associated with a scientific approach-the search for truth, understanding, honesty, openness to the import of the observation and evidence, and a skeptical stance toward authority. (Breger, 1981, p. 50)
       [Attributes of Psychoanalysis:]
       1. Psychic Determinism. No item in mental life and in conduct and behavior is "accidental"; it is the outcome of antecedent conditions.
       2. Much mental activity and behavior is purposive or goal-directed in character.
       3. Much of mental activity and behavior, and its determinants, is unconscious in character. 4. The early experience of the individual, as a child, is very potent, and tends to be pre-potent over later experience. (Farrell, 1981, p. 25)
       Our sceptic may be unwise enough... to maintain that, because analytic theory is unscientific on his criterion, it is not worth discussing. This step is unwise, because it presupposes that, if a study is not scientific on his criterion, it is not a rational enterprise... an elementary and egregious mistake. The scientific and the rational are not co-extensive. Scientific work is only one form that rational inquiry can take: there are many others. (Farrell, 1981, p. 46)
       Psychoanalysts have tended to write as though the term analysis spoke for itself, as if the statement "analysis revealed" or "it was analyzed as" preceding a clinical assertion was sufficient to establish the validity of what was being reported. An outsider might easily get the impression from reading the psychoanalytic literature that some standardized, generally accepted procedure existed for both inference and evidence. Instead, exactly the opposite has been true. Clinical material in the hands of one analyst can lead to totally different "findings" in the hands of another. (Peterfreund, 1986, p. 128)
       The analytic process-the means by which we arrive at psychoanalytic understanding-has been largely neglected and is poorly understood, and there has been comparatively little interest in the issues of inference and evidence. Indeed, psychoanalysts as a group have not recognized the importance of being bound by scientific constraints. They do not seem to understand that a possibility is only that-a possibility-and that innumerable ways may exist to explain the same data. Psychoanalysts all too often do not seem to distinguish hypotheses from facts, nor do they seem to understand that hypotheses must be tested in some way, that criteria for evidence must exist, and that any given test for any hypothesis must allow for the full range of substantiation/refutation. (Peterfreund, 1986, p. 129)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychoanalysis

  • 20 Mind

       It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science... to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder in which they lie involved when made the object of reflection and inquiry.... It cannot be doubted that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from one another, and that what is really distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished by reflection and, consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood which lie not beyond the compass of human understanding. (Hume, 1955, p. 22)
       Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas: How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless Fancy of Man has painted on it, with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of Reason and Knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from Experience. (Locke, quoted in Herrnstein & Boring, 1965, p. 584)
       The kind of logic in mythical thought is as rigorous as that of modern science, and... the difference lies, not in the quality of the intellectual process, but in the nature of things to which it is applied.... Man has always been thinking equally well; the improvement lies, not in an alleged progress of man's mind, but in the discovery of new areas to which it may apply its unchanged and unchanging powers. (Leґvi-Strauss, 1963, p. 230)
       MIND. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature, the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing but itself to know itself with. (Bierce, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 55)
       [Philosophy] understands the foundations of knowledge and it finds these foundations in a study of man-as-knower, of the "mental processes" or the "activity of representation" which make knowledge possible. To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind, so to understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in which the mind is able to construct such representation.... We owe the notion of a "theory of knowledge" based on an understanding of "mental processes" to the seventeenth century, and especially to Locke. We owe the notion of "the mind" as a separate entity in which "processes" occur to the same period, and especially to Descartes. We owe the notion of philosophy as a tribunal of pure reason, upholding or denying the claims of the rest of culture, to the eighteenth century and especially to Kant, but this Kantian notion presupposed general assent to Lockean notions of mental processes and Cartesian notions of mental substance. (Rorty, 1979, pp. 3-4)
       Under pressure from the computer, the question of mind in relation to machine is becoming a central cultural preoccupation. It is becoming for us what sex was to Victorians-threat, obsession, taboo, and fascination. (Turkle, 1984, p. 313)
       7) Understanding the Mind Remains as Resistant to Neurological as to Cognitive Analyses
       Recent years have been exciting for researchers in the brain and cognitive sciences. Both fields have flourished, each spurred on by methodological and conceptual developments, and although understanding the mechanisms of mind is an objective shared by many workers in these areas, their theories and approaches to the problem are vastly different....
       Early experimental psychologists, such as Wundt and James, were as interested in and knowledgeable about the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system as about the young science of the mind. However, the experimental study of mental processes was short-lived, being eclipsed by the rise of behaviorism early in this century. It was not until the late 1950s that the signs of a new mentalism first appeared in scattered writings of linguists, philosophers, computer enthusiasts, and psychologists.
       In this new incarnation, the science of mind had a specific mission: to challenge and replace behaviorism. In the meantime, brain science had in many ways become allied with a behaviorist approach.... While behaviorism sought to reduce the mind to statements about bodily action, brain science seeks to explain the mind in terms of physiochemical events occurring in the nervous system. These approaches contrast with contemporary cognitive science, which tries to understand the mind as it is, without any reduction, a view sometimes described as functionalism.
       The cognitive revolution is now in place. Cognition is the subject of contemporary psychology. This was achieved with little or no talk of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters. Similarly, neuroscience has risen to an esteemed position among the biological sciences without much talk of cognitive processes. Do the fields need each other?... [Y]es because the problem of understanding the mind, unlike the wouldbe problem solvers, respects no disciplinary boundaries. It remains as resistant to neurological as to cognitive analyses. (LeDoux & Hirst, 1986, pp. 1-2)
       Since the Second World War scientists from different disciplines have turned to the study of the human mind. Computer scientists have tried to emulate its capacity for visual perception. Linguists have struggled with the puzzle of how children acquire language. Ethologists have sought the innate roots of social behaviour. Neurophysiologists have begun to relate the function of nerve cells to complex perceptual and motor processes. Neurologists and neuropsychologists have used the pattern of competence and incompetence of their brain-damaged patients to elucidate the normal workings of the brain. Anthropologists have examined the conceptual structure of cultural practices to advance hypotheses about the basic principles of the mind. These days one meets engineers who work on speech perception, biologists who investigate the mental representation of spatial relations, and physicists who want to understand consciousness. And, of course, psychologists continue to study perception, memory, thought and action.
    ... [W]orkers in many disciplines have converged on a number of central problems and explanatory ideas. They have realized that no single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind: it will not give up its secrets to psychology alone; nor is any other isolated discipline-artificial intelligence, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology, philosophy-going to have any greater success. (Johnson-Laird, 1988, p. 7)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Mind

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